صفحات ۲۲ تا ۳۲

112 Using the past simple tense after an auxiliary verb, instead of the past participle.

Don’t say: I’ve forgot to bring my book.

Say: I’ve forgotten to bring my book.

Use the past paiticiple (and not the past tense) with the auxiliary verb have and its parts.

113 Using must or ought to to express a past obligation.

Don’t say: You ought to come yesterday. Say: You ought to have come yesterday. Or: You should have come yesterday.

Don’t use must and ought to as past tenses. To express a past duty (which wasn’t done) use the perfect infinitive without to after ought to or should,

Note: In indirect speech use must and ought to as past tenses: He said he must do it.

114 Using tlhe present perfect instead of the simple past tense.

Don ‘t say: I have seen a good film yesterday. Say: I saw a good film yesterday.

Use the simple past tense (and not the present perfect) for an action completed in the past at a stated time.

Note: When a sentence has a word or a phrase denoting past time, like yesterday, last night, last week, last year, then, ago, etc., always use a simple past tense.

115 Using the simple past tense instead of the present perfect.

Don’t: say: I saw the Parthenon of Athens. Say: I have seen the Parthenon of Athens.

If we are speaking of the result of a past action rather than of the action itself, we must use the present perfect tense. When somebody says, I’ve seen the Parthenon, he or she is not thinking so much of the past act of seeing it, as of the present result of that past action.

116 Using the simple past tense with a recent action, instead of the present perfect.

Don’t say: The clock struck. Say: The clock has struck.

If we are speaking of an action Just finished, we must use the present perfect instead of the simple past tense. For example, immediately after the clock strikes, we shouldn’t say The clock struck, but The clock has struck.

117 Using the simple present instead of the present perfect.

Don’t say: I’m at this school two years. Say: I’ve been at this school two years.

Use the present perfect (and not the simple present) for an action begun in the past and continuing into the present. I’ve been at this school two years means I’m still here.

118 Using the simple present instead of the present perfect after a since clause of time.

Don’t say: Since he came, we are happy. Say: Since he came, we’ve been happy.

The verb after a since clause of time is generally in the present perfect tense.

119 Using the simple present instead of the present continuous.

Don’t say: Look! Two boys fight. Say: Look! Two boys are fighting.

Note: We also use the present continuous for the future when something is pre-arrariged or expected with some certainty: Lorna is arriving tomorrow at six. Tom and I are eating out tonight.

120 The continuous form of the tense misused.

Don’t say: I’m understanding the lesson now. Say: I understand the lesson now.

As a rule, verbs denoting a state rather than an act have no continuous forms, like understand, know. believe, like, love, belong, prefer, consist, mean, hear, see, etc.

121 Using the present continuous for a habitual action, instead of the simple present.

Don’t say: Every morning I’m going for a walk. Say: Every morning I go for a Walk.

Use the simple present (and not the present continuous) to express a present habitual action.

Note: Use the present continuous to express a habitual action with the word always or with a verb denoting a continuous state: He is always talking in class; He is living in London.

122 Using the verb to use for the present habitual action.

Don’t say: I use to get up at six every morning. Say: I get up at six every morning. Or: I’m accustomed to getting up at six, etc.

The verb to use does not express a habit in the present. I use means I employ: I use a pen to write with.

Note: Used to expresses a past state or habit and it usually refers to some old situation which no longer exists: I used to see him every day, My father used to play football very well.

123 Using the past continuous for a habitual action, instead of the simple past tense.

Don’t say: Last year I was walking to school every day. Say: Last year I walked to school every day.

Use the simple past tense to express a habit in the past, and not the past continuous.

Note: Use the past continuous tense to describe events in the past happening at the time another action took place: I was walking to school when I met him.

124 Using the past tense instead of the past perfect.

Don’t say: The train already left before I arrived. Say: The train had already left before I arrived.

Use the past perfect when the time of one past action is more past than that of another. Put the action which was completed first in the past perfect and the second action in the past tense.

Note: Don’t use the present tense and the past perfect in the same sentence. It would be Incorrect to say. My brother says that he had not gone to the cinema last night.

125 Using the past perfect instead of the simple past tense.

Don’t say: I’d finished the book yesterday. Say: I finished the book yesterday.

Don’t use the past perfect unless there is another verb in the past tense in the same sentence.

126 Using the future in a clause of time, instead of the present tense.

Don’t say: I’ll see you when I shall come back. Say: I’ll see you when I come back.

If the verb in the main clause is in the future, the verb in the time clause must be in the present tense.

127 Using the future in the if clause instead of the present tense.

Don’t say: If he will ask me, I will stay. Say: If he asks me, I will stay.

Use the present tense in a future conditional In the if clause and the future tense in the mam clause.

Note: But the future tense may be used In an if clause expresslng a request: If you will give me some money I will buy you a drink.

128 Using the present tense after as if or as though instead of the past.

Don’t say: Janine talks as if she knows everything. Say: Janine talks as if she knew everything.

Use the past tense after the phrase as if or as though. He talks as If he knew everythcng, means He talks as he would talk If he knew everything.

Note: Use the subjective were with the verb to be after as if: He acts as if he were a rich man.

129 Using the past conditional of wish instead of the present indicative.

Don’t say: I would wish to know more English. Say: I wish I knew more English or I wish that I knew more English.

Use the present tense of wish to express a present meaning, followed by a that clause containing a past tense.

130 Using a wrong tense with an improbable condition.

Don’t say: If he would ask me, I would stay. Say: If he asked me, I would stay.

Express an improbable condition by the past tense and use the conditional in the main clause. This use of the past tense doesn’t indicate a time but a degree of probability.

131 Using a wrong tense with a counterfactual condition.

Don’t say: If he would have asked me, I would stay. Say: If he had asked me, I would have stayed.

Express a counterfactual (that didn’t happen) condition by the past perfect and use the past conditional in the main clause. This use of the past perfect doesn’t indicate a time but an impossible happening.

132 Using the infinitive instead of a finite verb.

Don’t say: Sir, to go home to get my book? Say: Sir, may I go home to get my book?

The infinitive simply names an action without reference to person, number or time, Therefore, it can’t make sense without the help of a finite verb.

133 Mixing up the tenses.

Don’t say: They asked him to be captain, but he refuses. Say: They asked him to be captain, but he refused.

If you begin with a verb referring to past time, keep the verb forms in the past. The same rule applies to tenses throughout a composition.

Have another look at …

Use of certain tenses

1 Use the Simple Present for habitual or frequent actions, and use the Present Continuous for actions taking place at the present moment. Examples: I read the newspaper every day. I’m reading an English book (now).

2 Use the Simple Past when a definite time or date is mentioned, and use the Present Perfect when no time is mentioned. Examples: I did my homework last night. I’ve done my homework (so I can watch TV - or whatever - now).

3 Express habitual or repeated actions in the past either by the Simple Past or by the phrase used to. Example: I went (or I used to go to the cinema every week last year. Note: Don’t use the Past Continuous I was going) for a past habitual action, but for an action in the past continuing at the time another action took place: I was going to the cinema when I met him.

4 The only correct tense to use is the Present Perfect if the action began in the past and is still continuing in the present. Example: I’ve been in this class for two months.

5 Be very careful NOT to use the future but the Present tense in a clause of time or condition, if the verb in the main clause is in the future. Example: I will visit the Parthenon when I go (or if I go) to Athens.

134 Confusion of gender.

Don’t say: The door is open, please shut her. Say: The door is open, please shut it.

In English only names of people and animals have gender (masculine or feminine). inanimate things are neuter, and take the pronoun it in the singular.

Note: It’s possible to use masculine or feminine pronouns when inanimate things are personified: England is proud of her navy.

135 Using the possessive ‘s with inanimate objects.

Don’t saiy: Her room’s window is open. Say: The window of her room is open.

With inanimate objects we usually use the of structure. The door of the car. ‘The leg of the table. The surface of the water. With the names of places and organisations we can use either: London’s streets = The streets of London. Italy’s climate. = The climate of Italy. The school’s main office = The main office of the school.

Note: Howe-ver, we do say: a day’s work, a night’s rest, a week’s holiday, a pound’s worth, and etc, especially with similar measures of time.

136 Using the objective case after the verb to be.

Don’t say: It was him. Say: It was he.

The pronoun coming after the verb to be must be in the nominative case, and not in the objective in written composition. However, the objective case is now usually used in coversation: It’s me,lt was him/her/them, etc.

137 Using the objective case after the conjunction than.

Don’t say: My sister is taller than me. Say: My sister is taller than I (am).

The word than is a conjunction, and can only be followed by a pronoun in the nominative case. The verb coming after the pronoun is generally omitted.

Note: Use the objective case in spoken English: You’re much taller than me.

138 Using the subject pronoun after between.

Don’t say: It’s a secret between you and I. Say: It’s a secret between you and me.

Between is a preposition, and all prepositions take the objective case after them.

139 Using an object pronoun before a gerund.

Don’t say: Him laughing at her was what made her angry. Say: His laughing at her was what made her angry.

When we use an —ing verb as a noun, the preceding noun or pronoun must be possessive.

140 Using an object pronoun in a double genitive.

Don’t say: A friend of him told us the news. Say: A friend of his told us the news.

We use the double genitive when we want to emphasise the person who possesses rather than the thing which he possesses: A friend of his is simply another way of saying one of his friends.

141 Misuse of -self forms.

Don’t say: Michael and myself are here. Say: Michael and I are here.

Use the simple personal pronouns I, you, he, etc, if no emphasis is necessary.

Note: Use the -self pronouns in two ways: (1) for emphasis: She herself was hurt; (2) refiexiveiyi She hurt herself.

142 Using hisself or theirselves instead of himself or themselves.

Don’t say: They fell down and hurt theirselves.

Say: They fell down and hurt themselves.

The reflexive pronouns, third person, are himself and themselves , and not hisself and theirselves.

143 Misuse of noun/verb homonyms.

Don’t say: Becky played a good play of chess. Say: Becky played a good game of chess.

Some verbs and nouns do have the same form and analogous meaning in English: The police fight a hard fight. Heather dreams long vivid dreams. If you lie the lie will catch you out! The company danced an African dance. However, we seldom use the same word like this. Usually we try to avoid it in some way: She fought a long battle with them. If you lie you will be caught out. The company did an African dance.

144 Using the relative pronoun which for persons. Don’t say: I’ve a brother which is at school. Say: I’ve a brother who is at school.

Only use which as a relative pronoun for animals or things. The right pronoun to use for people is who (whose, whom).

145 Using what or which after everything, etc.

Don’t say: I heard everything which (or what) he said. Say: I heard everything (that) he said or I heard everything he said.

Don’t use the relative pronouns which and what after everything, all, something, anything, a lot, (not much), little, or nothing. We can use that after these words, or it can be omitted.

146 Who and whom.

Don’t say: I saw the woman whom you said lived next doon. Say: I saw the woman (who) you said lived next door or I saw the woman you said lived next door.

We rarely use whom in modern English. We still use it after prepositions to. by, with, after, on etc. For example, The girl to whom you were speaking is Nigerian, We prefer to avoid this nowadays by changing the order of the sentence: The girl you were speaking to is Nigerian. You can also use that in place of who: The girl that you were speaking to is Nigerian.

147 Using who, whom, or which after the superlative, instead of that.

Don’t say: It’s the best which I’ve seen. Say: It’s the best (that) I’ve seen.

Use the relative that (not who, whom, or which) after a superlative. It can, however, be omitted.

148 The same as and or same that.

Don’t say: Amelia bought the same bag that me. Say: Amelia bought the same bag as me.

After the same we use as unless it’s followed by a subordinate clause, in which case we use that, or omit it: Mr smith ordered the same meal (that) he ordered before.

Note: Sometimes we use that instead of who or which after same. He wore the same clothes that he wore on Sunday.

149 Using who? or what? instead of which?

Don’t say: Who of the two boys is the taller? Say: Which of the two boys is the taller?

Use the interrogative pronoun which? for both people and things, asks for one out of a definite number.

Note: The interrogative pronoun what? doesn’t imply choice: What’s your telephone number? It’s also used to ask for a person’s profession: What’s your father? — Hes a lawyer.

150 Who? and Whom?

(a) Who?

Don’t say: Whom do you think will be chosen? Say: Who do you think will be chosen?

(b) Whom? Don’t say: Who do you think I saw yesterday? Say: Whom do you think I saw yesterday?

In sentence (a) who is the subject of will be chosen; do you think is a parenthesis. In sentence (b) whom is the object of I saw; do you think is a parenthesis.

151 Using one other instead of another.

Don’t saiy: Please give me one other book. Say: Please give me another book.

Another is formed from an and other, but instead of being written an other it’s written as one word another.

152 Using the superlative instead of the comparative.

Don’t say: John is the tallest of the two boys. Say: John is the taller of the two boys.

Use the comparative when two people or things are compared.

153 Using from after the comparative instead of than.

Don’t say: Amy is taller from her brother. Say: Amy is taller than her brother.

Adjectives (or adverbs) in the comparative are followed by than and not by from.

154 Using the comparative instead of the superlative.

Don’t say: Cairo is the larger city in Africa. Say: Cairo is the largest city in Africa.

Use the superlative when more than two persons or things are compared.

155 Using the more instead of most.

Don’t say: The more people will agree with me. Say: Most people will agree with me.

Use most (not the more) when you mean the majority of people.

Note: Use the more in sentences like The more I complain, the more laugh.